Metal enhanced fluorescence-based sensing methods

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to metallic-surface detection systems for determining target substances including free bilirubin in neonatal serum in the presence of a predominantly high background of bilirubin bound Human Serum Albumin (HSA) or sensing and isolating target nucleotide sequences wherein a fluorescence signal is enhanced by close proximity of the target substances near metallic surfaces.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application claims priority to PCT Application No. PCT/US2006/023738 filed in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, PCT Division, on Jun. 19, 2006, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/691,851 filed on Jun. 17, 2005 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/781,933 filed on Mar. 13, 2006, the contents of all applications are hereby incorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

GOVERNMENT RIGHTS IN INVENTION

Work related to the invention was conducted in the performance of NIH R21 GM070929. As a result of such contracts, the U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention described herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to detection methods, and more particularly, to the use of metallic surfaces to enhance intensity of fluorescence species or reactions in capture assays thereby increasing the sensitivity and rapidity of these assays. The present invention is applicable for determining free unbound bilirubin in serum and for capturing nucleotide sequences.

2. Background of the Related Art

Assays are used widely for the detection and determination of a variety of proteins, peptides and small molecules. Currently, there exists a large diverse family of assays today and the basic principles are generally the same. These assays typically use receptor-ligand binding for target molecule recognition and fluorescence based readouts for signal transduction. Fluorescent based assay systems are available in many forms, such as time-resolved assays, energy transfer assays and fluorescence polarization assays.

Fluorescence detection is the basis of most assays used in drug discovery and high throughput screening (HTS) today. In all of these assays, assay rapidity and sensitivity is a primary concern. The sensitivity is determined by both the quantum yield of the fluorophores and efficiency of the detection system, while rapidity is determined by the physical and biophysical parameters of temperature, concentration, assay bioaffinity, etc.

Heretofore, assay methods and/or systems have been lacking in sensitivity for determining and quantifying the amount of free unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum or isolating target nucleotide sequence.

Technology has been developed that recognizes that close-proximity to noble metallic surfaces can alter the radioactive decay rate and/or excitation rate of fluorophores. Further, it has been shown that quantum yield of low quantum yield fluorophores can be increased by proximity to such metallic surfaces. However, the use of such technology, termed Metal Enhance Fluorescence (MEF), has been limited and heretofore has not been envisioned for the use of determining the level of free unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum or for isolating a desired nucleotide sequence.

The most commonly used method for serum free-bilirubin measurement is the peroxidase method. The concentration of unbound bilirubin is determined from the peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of bilirubin by a peroxide [47]. The protocol for measurement of free bilirubin according to the peroxidase method requires a blood sample to be drawn from the baby. The serum, the portion of the sample to be tested, is then separated by centrifugation. The serum is taken on ice and shielded from the light, and is used to measure free bilirubin using the unbound bilirubin UB Analyzer, a direct free bilirubin measurement. The UB Analyzer (FDA approved) in essence utilizes the peroxidase method, but in a standardized instrument. First, a measurement is performed using the full concentration of the peroxidase enzyme, and a readout is obtained which indicates both total and free bilirubin levels. A second measurement is performed using half the initial concentration of peroxidase. To improve the accuracy of the free bilirubin measurement, both the readouts are used to derive the final estimated value of free bilirubin using a known algorithm table.

However, the UB Analyzer has some technical pitfalls including the need for reagent manipulation and sample dilution before analysis. A 40-fold dilution must be made to the serum sample, which can alter intrinsic bilirubin binding properties and mask the presence of binding competitors to albumin. Moreover, there is a possibility of interference with free bilirubin measurement by direct or conjugated bilirubin [48]. The test also requires the use of at least two peroxidase concentrations in order to improve the accuracy of the free bilirubin measurement, as an estimate of the equilibrium free bilirubin in the sample being measured. This necessary and repeated measurement with two different peroxidase concentrations increases both the amount of blood and time required for each sample. Furthermore, the light absorption of bilirubin varies with the type of albumin present and the number of bilirubin molecules bound per albumin. There are also factors that can cause the overestimation or underestimation of the free bilirubin measurement, depending on the rate of the peroxidase reaction [49].

There are also several other cumbersome techniques that indirectly measure unbound bilirubin. For example, the HBABA method, utilizes 2-(4′-hydroxybenzeneazo) benzoic acid to measure the available albumin binding sites of a sample, by a shift in the absorbance spectrum of the dye when bound to albumin [50]. This gives an estimate of how much bilirubin is unbound. The fluorescence-quenching method allows the determination of the binding capacity and affinity of albumin, whereby the concentration of unbound bilirubin may be indirectly calculated, based on the quenching of the ultraviolet fluorescence of albumin upon binding to bilirubin [51].

Providing a sensitive and reliable assay for determining serum free bilirubin would be of great value because jaundice (unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia) is one of the most common problems of prematurity. Almost all premature babies have some degree of jaundice during their first week. Jaundice can lead to neurotoxicity including deafness, auditory neuropathy, athetoid cerebral palsy, supranuclear gaze palsy, neonatal seizures, and apnea [31-33]. Premature infants are at a higher risk of bilirubin-induced neuronal injury than term infants [34]. To prevent bilirubin-induced neurotoxcity, neonates are often treated with intensive phototherapy. In rare cases with severe hyperbilirubinemia and unresponsiveness to phototherapy, exchange transfusion is used. Uniform guidelines, however, do not exist for the management of unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in premature infants. Currently, serum total bilirubin levels are used to evaluate and manage premature infants with unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. However, there is substantial evidence that serum total bilirubin levels correlate poorly with bilirubin-induced neurotoxicity in premature infants [35-37]. Moreover, institutional variations in the levels of bilirubin at which phototherapy and exchange transfusions are initiated in jaundiced premature newborns indicate that the current management of hyperbilirubinemia in these babies is not evidence based [38].

Various biochemical factors are involved in the pathogenesis of bilirubin encephalopathy. Bilirubin binding is a complex function of the concentrations of total bilirubin, free unbound bilirubin and serum albumin. According to current theory, unbound bilirubin (UB; also referred to as non-albumin-bound or free bilirubin) is capable of crossing the intact blood brain barrier and causing subsequent neuronal damage [39]. Current literature supports the notion that the risk of bilirubin neurotoxicity increases with increasing free bilirubin (or UB) concentration. According to “free bilirubin thinking,” the free bilirubin concentration determines the distribution of bilirubin between the tissues and vascular space [40]. There exists overwhelming clinical evidence to support this free bilirubin theory [41-46]. Studies in neonates supporting free bilirubin theory have involved autopsy findings of kernicterus, and auditory brainstem response (ABR) findings of transient bilirubin encephalopathy. The findings of these studies have suggested that the neurological outcome of hyperbilirubinemia correlate better with free bilirubin than total serum bilirubin levels. In premature infants, overt kernicterus becomes likely with unbound bilirubin levels ≧15 nmol/L (0.87 μg/dl) [42-43], and ABR changes are seen at unbound bilirubin levels >0.5 μg/dl [41]. In term neonates, ABR changes are seen at unbound bilirubin levels >1.0 μg/dl [45]. In summary, as far as the available biochemical measures are concerned, most of the published studies indicate that free bilirubin is the most sensitive biochemical measure to evaluate premature infants with jaundice.

Due to the shortcomings of the techniques discussed above, it would be advantageous to have a system for measuring unbound bilirubin that not only directly measures the metal-amplified fluorescence of the unbound bilirubin itself but also provides a direct correlation between the fluorescence emission and the concentration of the free bilirubin, even in whole unseparated blood.

Notably, the present invention also addresses the problems relating to isolation and quantitation of specific nucleotide sequences, such as RNA molecules, from biological samples. Isolating and determining a specific nucleotide sequence is an essential tool for the study of regulated gene expression [119] and is routinely employed in studies of gene transcription, [120] RNA stability, [121] RNA transport and a host of other biological processes [122]. In addition, RNA detection and quantitation also present an appealing strategy for rapidly identifying unknown biological agents (bacterial, viral, etc.) [123, 124]. Furthermore, nucleotide sequence detection is of great utility for gene expression profiling in clinical settings, where the expression of a subset of genes within tissue (i.e. biopsy) or blood samples may be rapidly measured, revealing diagnostic information to direct patient-specific therapeutic strategies [120, 125].

All current techniques for quantifying specific RNAs exploit base-pair complimentarity between a target RNA and one or more nucleic acid probes, either in the form of extended DNA or RNA sequences including Northern blots, [119]; RNase protection assays, [126, 127]; [RPAs]) or short oligonucleotides (reverse transcription-PCR [RT-PCR], [128]; or RNA capture assays [129]. This principle allows for extremely precise target recognition, yet current methods of probe:target hybrid detection face a number of technological restrictions. In particular, the utility of RNA sensing in microbial detection and/or clinical gene expression profiling may be hindered by two principal constraints, namely: sensitivity and rapidity [130].

RNA capture assays offer a simple and rapid approach to RNA quantitation. Target RNAs are selected based on complimentarity to an oligonucleotide probe which is attached to a solid surface or matrix, then detected by annealing a radio- or chemically-labeled probe at a distinct site on the target RNA [129]. At present, however, these assays are subject to the same sensitivity limitations as those described for Northern blots and RPAs, namely, that detection relies on the activity of radiolabels, the sensitivity of conjugated fluorophores, or the use of bright secondary chemiluminescent assays. These conditions make RNA capture assays currently useful only for abundant RNA species, thus limiting their general utility as a biosensor platform [128].

Thus, there is a need for biosensor systems and methods of using same that overcome the shortcomings of the prior art and provide for increased sensitivity and signal production for use in determining free bilirubin in blood or serum, and isolating target nucleotide sequences.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention relates to a metallized surface micro-assay based detection system for determining unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum in the presence of a predominantly high background of bilirubin bound Human Serum Albumin (HSA). The system comprises a polymeric material which is coated and/or at least surface impregnated with HSA that is applied over the metallized surface for capture of unbound bilirubin.

In another aspect, the present invention relates to a metallized surface assay based detection system for determining unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum, the detection system comprising:

-   -   a) metallic particles or film deposited on a substrate surface;         and     -   b) a polymeric film positioned on the metallic particles or         metallic film, wherein at least the surface of the polymeric         film is impregnated with HSA in an amount sufficient to capture         of unbound bilirubin.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a detection system for determining free unbound bilirubin, the system comprising:

-   -   a) a metallic material applied to at least a portion of a         substrate surface;     -   b) a polymeric layer applied to the metallic material and any         exposed substrate surface to form a detection substrate, wherein         the polymeric layer is coated with and/or at least surface         impregnated with human serum albumin (HSA) in an amount         sufficient to bind with free bilirubin;     -   c) a source of electromagnetic energy for applying energy to the         detection system; and     -   d) a detector for measuring fluorescence emission of the bound         bilirubin in the polymeric material, wherein the polymeric layer         is of sufficient thickness to position the bound bilirubin a         distance from the metallic surface to enhance fluorescence.

Preferably, the thickness of the polymeric layer is from about 20 nm to about 300 nm, and more preferably from about 40 nm to about 120 nm.

The metallic material may take the form of metallic islands, colloids, nanostructures of any geometric shape, porous matrix or a continuous metallic surface. The metallic element may include any form of noble metals such as silver, gold, platinum and copper, and more preferably, the metallic material is gold or a low density silver. The substrate positioned beneath the metallic material may include glass and/or a polymeric material.

The HSA impregnated and/or coated polymeric material may further include a tag that emits a radiative signal when excited by electromagnetic energy. Still further, the system may include a fluorophore having binding affinity for the bound bilirubin that provides a fluorescence signal and an enhanced signal when positioned a sufficient distance from the metallic material.

In a still further aspect, the present invention relates to a method of detecting unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum, the method comprising:

-   -   a) contacting a detection substrate with neonatal serum, wherein         the detection substrate comprises:         -   i. metallic material applied to at least a portion of a             substrate surface; and         -   ii. a polymeric layer applied to the metallic material,             wherein the polymeric layer is coated with and/or at least             surface impregnated with human serum albumin in an amount             sufficient to bind with free bilirubin;     -   b) applying a source of electromagnetic energy to the detection         substrate; and     -   c) detecting fluorescence emission of the bilirubin bound on the         human serum albumin and/or in the polymeric material, wherein         the free bilirubin diffuses into the polymeric material and its         intrinsic fluorescence is enhanced by positioning near the         metallic material.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to a target nucleotide sequence sensing platform comprising:

-   -   a) a glass or polymeric substrate at least partially coated with         metallized material, wherein the metallized material comprises         an anchor probe;     -   b) a first probe having binding affinity for the target         nucleotide sequence and comprising a fluorophore;     -   c) a second probe having binding affinity for the target         nucleotide sequence nucleotide sequence, wherein the second         probe binds to a different region of the target nucleotide         sequence and at a predetermined distance from the first probe         and wherein the second probe comprises a linking molecule having         binding affinity for the anchor probe;     -   d) a first annealing solution for binding the first and second         probes to any target nucleotide sequence in the sample;     -   e) a second annealing solution for binding the linking molecule         to the anchor probe; and     -   f) a single or multiple photon excitation system for exciting         the fluorophore label.

In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a method for capturing a target RNA in a sample, the method comprising:

-   -   a) providing a metallized surface at least partially coating a         substrate, wherein the metallized surface further comprises an         anchor probe;     -   b) preparing a first nucleotide sequence probe essentially         complementary to the target RNA for binding to one area of the         target RNA, wherein the first probe comprises a fluorescence         label;     -   c) preparing a second nucleotide sequence probe essentially         complementary to the target RNA, wherein the second nucleotide         probe binds to a region of the target RNA sequence different         from and at a predetermined distance from the binding of the         first probe and wherein the second probe comprises a linking         molecule having binding affinity for the anchor probe;     -   d) providing annealing conditions for binding the first and         second nucleotide sequence probes to any target RNA in the         sample; and     -   e) providing annealing conditions for binding the linking         molecule to the anchor probe, wherein the linking molecule is         positioned a sufficient distance from the fluorescence label to         position the fluorescence label a distance from the metallized         surface for enhanced fluorescence upon single or multiple photon         excitation.

The excitation energy may be generated by any electromagnetic energy source having the ability to generate single or multiple photons, and preferably, generated by a laser diode, light emitting diode source or pulsing systems thereof.

The metallized surface may take the form of metallic islands, nanostructures, colloids, porous matrix or a continuous metallic surface. The metallic element may include any form of noble metals such as silver, gold, platinum and copper, and more preferably, the metallic material is a low density silver. The substrate that comprises the metallized surface may include glass or polymeric material, or combinations thereof.

In a still further aspect, the present invention relates to a target RNA sensing platform comprising:

-   -   a) a glass or polymeric substrate at least partially coated with         metallized material, wherein the metallized material comprises         an anchor probe;     -   b) a first DNA probe having binding affinity for the target RNA         and comprising a fluorescence label.     -   c) a second DNA probe having binding affinity for the target         RNA, wherein the second DNA probe binds to a different region of         the target RNA sequence and at a predetermined distance from the         first DNA probe and wherein the second probe comprises a linking         molecule having binding affinity for the anchor probe;     -   d) a first annealing solution for binding the first and second         DNA probes to any target RNA in the sample;     -   e) a second annealing solution for binding the linking molecule         to the anchor probe; and     -   f) a single or multiple photon excitation system for exciting         the fluorescence label.

Another aspect relates to a kit for use in determining free unbound bilirubin in a test sample of neonatal serum, the kit comprising

-   -   a) a metallic material applied to at least a portion of a         substrate surface, wherein the substrate surface is positioned         within a container; and     -   b) a polymeric layer applied to the metallic material surface to         form a detection substrate, wherein the polymeric layer is         coated and/or at least surface impregnated with human serum         albumin (HAS) in an amount sufficient to bind with free         bilirubin, wherein the polymeric layer is of sufficient         thickness to position any bound bilirubin a sufficient distance         from the metallic material to enhance fluorescence.

The metallic material may take the form of metallic islands, colloids, nanostructures of any geometric shape, porous matrix or a continuous metallic surface. The metallic material may include any form of a noble metal such as silver, gold, platinum, copper and combinations thereof, and more preferably, the metallic material is gold or a low density silver. The substrate positioned beneath the metallic material may include glass and/or a polymeric material.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, drawings and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows the MEF free unbound bilirubin assay of the present invention.

FIG. 2 shows the effects of local metallic structures on a nearby fluorophore.

FIG. 3 shows a classical Jablonski diagram for the free space condition and the modified from in the presence of metallic particles, islands or colloids. E—Excitation. Γm—radiative rate in the presence of metal.

FIG. 4 shows standard front face excitation and off-axis collection of the enhanced intrinsic bilirubin fluorescence, (TOP) and Total-Internal Reflection Fluorescence excitation geometry.

FIG. 5 shows cleaned glass slides with surface-immobilized PEG-DA (Polyethylene glycol diacrylate) polymer coated over the entire surface. Both slides have been exposed to 50 ml 0.2 mg/dl free bilirubin (Sigma) in 2 spotted areas. The left hand slide contained embedded HSA, while the right hand slide contained no HSA. Both slides were washed after the 10 minute incubation period for 2 mins with PBS buffer.

FIG. 6 shows the synthetic scheme for the fabrication of the HSA embedded PEG-DA polymer coating.

FIG. 7 illustrates representative cover-well micro chambers that readily stick to the surface of many polymers and even glass (wet or dry), can be readily sealed, preventing potential evaporation, trapping a known volume of fluid on the surface of the film. Multiple spot chambers are also available allowing many more measurements per assay.

FIG. 8 shows one embodiment of the MEF-based RNA sensing platform technology of the present invention.

FIG. 9 shows the fluorescence emission spectra (intensity: arbitrary units) of TAMRA-linked oligo annealed to the RNA substrate that was hybridized with the thiolated Oligo anchor probe on the surface of the SiFs.

FIG. 10 shows the fluorescence emission intensity measured at 585 nm versus the amount of RNA used in the RNA capture assay (Signal to Noise, S/N>20) for three separate measurements.

FIG. 11 shows another embodiment of the RNA biosensing assay of the present invention.

FIG. 12 shows the β-globin mRNA substrate with the positions of translational initiation (AUG) and termination (UGA) codons indicated. The 3′-coding sequences targeted by the anchor and fluorescent primers are indicated below. Base numbering is relative to the translation initiation codon Accession number for the rabbit b-globin mRNA sequence is V00879.

FIG. 13 shows fluorescence emission spectrum measured from a 40 uL solution of 500 fmoles of TAMRA-linked oligo anchor probe on glass slide (TAMRA-linked oligo is not linked to the surface).

FIG. 14 shows fluorescence emission spectra (intensity: arbitrary units) of TAMRA-linked oligo annealed to the 500 fmoles of RNA substrate that was hybridized with the thiolated oligo anchor probe on the surface of the SiFs and control experiments: 1) Control RNA (tRNA, random sequence, Sigma) is used instead of Target RNA, 2) thiolated-oligo anchor probe is omitted, 3) TAMRA-linked oligo is omitted from the RNA capture assay.

FIG. 15 shows the experimental scheme used for the detection of RNA in the absence of SiFs (on glass, Top-Left) and in the presence of SiFs using avidin-biotin interactions.

FIG. 16 shows fluorescence emission spectra (intensity: arbitrary units) of TAMRA-linked Oligo annealed to the RNA substrate (500 fmoles) that was hybridized with the biotinylated Oligo anchor probe that was brought to the glass surface via avidin-biotin interactions.

FIG. 17 shows fluorescence emission spectra (intensity: arbitrary units) of TAMRA-linked Oligo annealed to the RNA substrate (500 fmoles) that was hybridized with the biotinylated Oligo anchor probe that was brought to the SiFs-coated surface via avidin-biotin interactions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides assays utilizing Metal-Enhanced Fluorescence (MEF) for detection, isolation and/or amplification of free unbound bilirubin or target nucleotide sequences.

Most knowledge relating to fluorescence is based on measurements of the spectroscopic properties of fluorophores that upon excitation, radiate into a homogeneous and non-conducting medium, typically referred to as free space. These spectral properties are well described by Maxwell's equations for a radiating oscillating dipole. However, the interactions of an emitting dipole with physical objects can be considerably more complex, as known from antenna and receiver design. The size and shape of an antenna are designed with the goal of directing the radiation and accounting for its interactions with the earth's surface. A fluorophore is also like an antenna, but one, which oscillates at high frequency and radiates short wavelengths. Local effects are not usually seen because of the small size of fluorophores relative to the experimental apparatus.

However, literature is rapidly starting to emerge whereby nearby conducting metallic surfaces can respond to a fluorophores oscillating dipole and modify the rate of emission, that is the intrinsic radiative decay rate, and the spatial distribution of the emitted radiation. Theoreticians describe this effect as due to changes in the photonic mode density near the fluorophore [30]. In most spectroscopic measurements, the solution or medium is transparent to both the emitted and sampling radiation. However, there are several important exceptions to the free space condition. One well-known example is Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) [53-57]. It is known that the presence of a metallic surface can enhance the Raman signals by factors of 10³ to 10⁸, and reports of even larger 10¹⁴-10¹⁶ fold enhancements have appeared [58-60]. The presence of a nearby metal film, island or particle can also alter the emission properties of fluorophores. The most well known effect is the quenching of fluorescence by a near-by metal. The emission of fluorophores within 50 Å of a metal surface is almost completely quenched. This effect is used in fluorescence microscopy with evanescent wave excitation. The emission from membranes cellular regions near the quartz-water interface is quenched, allowing selective observation of the emission from the cytoplasmic region more distance from the solid-liquid interface [61]. In addition to quenching, it is known that metal surfaces or particles can cause significant increases in fluorescence. Remarkably, depending on the distance and geometry, metal surfaces or particles can result in enhancement factors of many 1000 fold for the fluorescence emission [62-64].

Fluorophores near a metal film are not expected to emit isotropically, but rather the emission is directed into selected directions that depends on the sample configuration and the nature of the metallic surface [65-70]. In addition to directionality, the decay times of fluorophores are altered by the metal and under certain conditions can lead to an enhanced photostability of fluorophores [71].

The effects of metallic particles and surfaces on fluorophores are due to at least three known mechanisms as shown in FIG. 2. One is energy transfer quenching, k_(m), to the metal with a d⁻³ dependence [68]. This quenching can be understood by damping of the dipole oscillations by the nearby metal and as mentioned above, typically occurs within about 30 to 50 Å of the surface. A second mechanism is an increase in the emission intensity due to the metal increasing the local incident field on the fluorophore, E_(m), with a maximum theoretical enhancement effect of 140. This effect has been observed for metal colloids and is appropriately called the “Lightening Rod effect” [69, 70, 72]. This enhancement can be understood as due to the metal particles on concentrating the local field and subsequently increasing the rate of excitation. The third mechanism is that a nearby metal can increase the intrinsic decay rate of the fluorophore, Γ_(m), that is, to modify the rate at which a fluorophore emits photons [1-30]. The last two fluorophore-metal interactions offer remarkable opportunities for advanced fluorescence assay technology, and is the major focus of the present invention and heretofore have not been utilized in assays for clinical sensing.

“Fluorophore,” and “fluorescence label,” used interchangeably herein, means any substance that emits electromagnetic energy such as light at a certain wavelength (emission wavelength) when the substance is illuminated by radiation of a different wavelength (excitation wavelength) and is intended to encompass a chemical or biochemical molecule or fragments thereof that is capable of interacting or reacting specifically with an analyte of interest in a sample to provide one or more optical signals. Additionally fluorophore includes both extrinsic and intrinsic fluorophores. Extrinsic fluorophore refer to fluorophores bound to another substance. Intrinsic fluorophores refer to substances that are fluorophores themselves. Exemplary fluorophores include but are not limited to those listed in the Molecular Probes Catalogue which is incorporated by reference herein.

Representative fluorophores include but are not limited to Alexa Fluor® 350, Dansyl Chloride (DNS-Cl), 5-(iodoacetamida)fluoroscein (5-IAF); fluoroscein 5-isothiocyanate (FITC), tetramethylrhodamine 5-(and 6-)isothiocyanate (TRITC), 6-acryloyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (acrylodan), 7-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3,-diazol-4-yl chloride (NBD-Cl), ethidium bromide, Lucifer Yellow, 5-carboxyrhodamine 6G hydrochloride, Lissamine rhodamine B sulfonyl chloride, Texas Red™. sulfonyl chloride, BODIPY™, naphthalamine sulfonic acids including but not limited to 1-anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonic acid (ANS) and 6-(p-toluidinyl)naphthalen-e-2-sulfonic acid (TNS), Anthroyl fatty acid, DPH, Parinaric acid, TMA-DPH, Fluorenyl fatty acid, Fluorescein-phosphatidylethanolamine, Texas red-phosphatidylethanolamine, Pyrenyl-phophatidylcholine, Fluorenyl-phosphotidylcholine, Merocyanine 540, 1-(3-sulfonatopropyl)-4-[-.beta.-[2 [(di-n-butylamino)-6 naphthyl]vinyl]pyridinium betaine (Naphtyl Styryl), 3,3′dipropylthiadicarbocyanine (diS-C₃-(5)), 4-(p-dipentyl aminostyryl)-1-methylpyridinium (di-5-ASP), Cy-3 Iodo Acetamide, Cy-5-N-Hydroxysuccinimide, Cy-7-Isothiocyanate, rhodamine 800, IR-125, Thiazole Orange, Azure B, Nile Blue, Al Phthalocyanine, Oxaxine 1,4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI), Hoechst 33342, TOTO, Acridine Orange, Ethidium Homodimer, N(ethoxycarbonylmethyl)-6-methoxyquinolinium (MQAE), Fura-2, Calcium Green, Carboxy SNARF-6, BAPTA, coumarin, phytofluors, Coronene, and metal-ligand complexes.

Representative intrinsic fluorophores include but are not limited to organic compounds having aromatic ring structures including but not limited to NADH, FAD, tyrosine, tryptophan, purines, pyrimidines, lipids, fatty acids, nucleic acids, nucleotides, nucleosides, amino acids, proteins, peptides, DNA, RNA, sugars, and vitamins. Additional suitable fluorophores include enzyme-cofactors; lanthanide, green fluorescent protein, yellow fluorescent protein, red fluorescent protein, or mutants and derivates thereof.

Also included are novel quaternary nitrogen heterocyclic boronic acid-containing compounds including:

wherein X is chloride, bromide or iodide and R is selected from the group consisting of H, straight chain or branched C₁-C₄ alkyl group, C₁-C₄ alkoxy group, aryl group, hydroxyl, cyano, sulfonyl, and NR¹R², wherein R¹ and R² may be the same as or different from one another and is independently selected from the group consisting of H and C₁-C₄ alkyl groups.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides enhanced emissions using metallized islands of elliptical, spherical, triangular or rod-like forms. In exemplary cases, the elliptical islands have aspect ratios of 3/2, and the spherical colloids have diameters of 20-60 nm. However, the invention is not limited to any particular geometry. Using known coating techniques, the placement of metallic islands could be controlled precisely, as close as 50 nm apart. In the continuous metallic film case, the fluorophore emissions could be detected in the analyte solution up to 500 nm away from the surface of the metal. In the case where the metallic coating is formed by islands, the enhanced fluorophore emissions could be detected in the solution up to 200 nm away from the surface of the metal.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides for metallic material and a fluorophore label capable of fluorescing, wherein the metallic material and the fluorophore are separated by at least one film spacer layer. The thickness of said film may be chosen so as to enhance the fluorescence of the fluorophore due to the distance of the fluorophore from the metallic material. The film spacer layer may be one or multiple layers of a polymer film, a layer formed from a fatty acid or a layer formed from an oxide. In a preferable embodiment, the film spacer layers and the metallic material are chemically inert and do not bind to the fluorophore to be detected or to intermediates that are bound to the compounds to be detected, for example covalently bound. The layer formed from a fatty acid may be formed by a Langmuir-Blodgett technique. The film spacer layer may be a spin coated polymer film. The oxide layer may be formed from a deposition technique, such as vapor deposition.

Further, the metallic material may be in the form of a porous three dimensional matrix. The three dimensional matrix may be a nano-porous three dimensional matrix. The metallic material may include metal colloid particles and/or metal-silica composite particles. The metallic material may comprise agglomerated metal particles and/or binary linked particles or metal particles in a polymer matrix. The three dimensional matrix may be formed from controlled pore glasses or using matrices assembled from the aggregation of silver-silica composites themselves. The matrices may be metallic nanoporous matrix, through which species will flow and be both detected and counted more efficiently.

It is known that a nearby metal can increase the intrinsic decay rate of a fluorophore, that is, to modify the rate at which the fluorophore emits photons. In fluorescence, the spectral observables are governed by the magnitude of λ, the radiative rate, relative to the sum of the non-radiative decay rates, k_(nr) such as internal conversion and quenching.

Fluorophores with high radiative rates have high quantum yields and short lifetimes. Increasing the quantum yield requires decreasing the non-radiative rates k_(nr), which is often only accomplished when using a low solution temperature or a fluorophore bound in a more rigid environment. The natural lifetime of a fluorophore, τ_(n), is the inverse of the radiative decay rate or the lifetime which would be observed if their quantum yields were unity. This value is determined by the oscillator strength (extinction coefficient) of the electronic transition. Hence, for almost all examples currently employed in fluorescence spectroscopy, the radiative decay rate is essentially constant. The modification and control of the radiative rate have also been referred as Radiative Decay Engineering (RDE), or “lightening rod” fluorescence enhancement effect. For example, enhanced intrinsic DNA fluorescence above metallic particles has recently been observed, which is typically not readily observable because of DNA's very low quantum yield of less than 10⁻⁴. The second favorable “lightening rod” effect also increases the fluorescence intensity by locally enhanced excitation. In this case, emission of fluorophores can be substantially enhanced irrespective of their quantum yields.

The reduction in lifetime of a fluorophore near a metal is due to an interaction between the fluorophore and metal particle, which enhances the radiative decay rate (quantum yield increase) or depending on distance, d⁻³, causes quenching. It should be noted that lifetimes of fluorophores with high quantum yields (0.5) would decrease substantially more than the lifetimes of those with low quantum yields (0.1 and 0.01). A shorter excited-state lifetime also allows less photochemical reactions, which subsequently results in an increased fluorophore photostability. Notably, the use of low quantum yield fluorophores would lead to much larger fluorescence enhancements (i.e. 1/Q₀) and could significantly reduce unwanted background emission from fluorophores distal from the silvered assay.

Fluorophore photostability is a primary concern in many applications of fluorescence. This is particularly true in single molecule spectroscopy. A shorter lifetime also allows for a larger photon flux. The maximum number of photons that are emitted each second by a fluorophore is roughly limited by the lifetime of its excited state. For example, a 10 ns lifetime can yield about 10⁸ photons per second per molecule, but in practice, only 10³ photons can be readily observed. The small number of observed photons is typically due to both photo-destruction and isotropic emission. If a metal surface decreases the lifetime, one can obtain more photons per second per molecule by appropriately increasing the incident intensity.

On the other hand, the metal-enhanced fluorescence provides enhanced intensity, while simultaneously shortening the lifetime. That is, it may be possible to decrease the excitation intensity, yet still see a significant increase in the emission intensity and photostability.

The emission enhancement may be observed at distances according to the type of fluorophore to be detected and the type, shape of the metal material, noting a difference between a film and a metallic island or colloid. For example, emission enhancement may be observed when a fluorophore distances about 4 nm to about 200 nm to metal surfaces. Preferable distances are about 4 nm to about 30 nm, and more preferably, 4 nm to about 20 nm to metal surfaces. At this scale, there are few phenomena that provide opportunities for new levels of sensing, manipulation, and control. In addition, devices at this scale may lead to dramatically enhanced performance, sensitivity, and reliability with dramatically decreased size, weight, and therefore cost.

Different surface enhanced fluorescence effects are expected for mirrors, sub-wavelength or semi-transparent metal surfaces, silver island films or metal colloids. More dramatic effects are typically observed for islands and colloids as compared to continuous metallic surfaces. The silver islands had the remarkable effect of increasing the intensity 5-fold while decreasing the lifetime 100-fold. Such an effect can only be explained by an increase in the radiative decay rate.

Fluorescence can be detected using devices including, but not limited to, a spectrofluorometer having a light source and detector. Additional detectors may include GaAs-cathode PMT. Further detectors may include photomultiplier tubes. Additionally, it is advantageous for the device to have a monochromator so that specific wavelengths of light may be used to excite a molecule or to detect emissions at a specific wavelength.

Excitation light sources can include arc lamps and lasers, laser diodes and light emitting diode source, and both single and multiple photon excitation sources. In another embodiment, use of a Ti-sapphire laser, Laser Diode (LD) or Light Emitting Diode Sources (LEDs) may be used with the RNA assay of the present invention. For example, using 2-photon excitation at 700-1000 nm and also using short pulse width (<50 μl), high repetition rate (1-80 MHz), laser diode and LED (1 ns, 1-10 MHz) sources. The enhanced sensitivity of the assay using 2-photon excitation, as compared to 1-photon, can be shown by using series dilution with RNA, initially with the Ti-Sapphire system, and later with LEDs and LDs. If a fluorophore absorbs two photons simultaneously, it will absorb enough energy to be raised to an excited state. The fluorophore will then emit a single photon with a wavelength that depends on the fluorophore used and typically in the visible spectra. The use of the Ti-sapphire laser with infrared light has an added benefit, that being, longer wavelengths are scattered less, which is a benefit to high-resolution imaging. Importantly, there is reduced background signal level gained by using 2-photon excitation as compared to 1-photon excitation by utilizing localized excitation near by a metallic particles.

When a sample containing a fluorophore is placed in the spectrofluorometer and exposed to an amount of exciting radiation, the fluorophore emits radiation that is detected by a photomultiplier tube. The fluorescence intensity of a fluorophore can be increased in response to an amount of exciting radiation when the distance between the metal particle and the fluorophore is from about 4 nm to about 2000 nm, preferably from about 40 nm to about 200 nm. The enhancement of fluorescence is, in part due to the localized excitation of the fluorophores when in close proximity to the silver nanoparticles and results in improved photostability of the fluorophores [131, 132]. When the metal (silver, aluminum or gold) is a continuous 45 nm-thick film, the spatially isotropic fluorescence emission can be converted into directional emission towards a detector further improving the detectability [134].

In applications of MEF, it was found that the enhanced fluorescence signals (Quantum yields—Qm) of fluorophores in close proximity (<10 nm) to metallic nanostructures could be well described by the following equations: Q _(m)=(Γ+Γ_(m))/(Γ+Γ_(m) +k _(nr))  (1)

where Γ is the unmodified radiative decay rate, Γ_(m) is the metal-modified radiative decay rate and k_(nr) are the non-radiative rates. Similarly, the metal-modified lifetime, τm, of a fluorophore is decreased by an increased radiative decay rate: τ_(m)=1/(Γ+Γ_(m) +k _(nr))  (2)

These equations have resulted in most unusual predictions for fluorophore-metal combinations, and it is these predictions and observations that are currently finding profound implications and applications in fluorescence based nanotechnology. From equations 1 and 2, it can be seen that as the value of Γm increases, the quantum yield Qm increases, while the lifetime, τm, decreases. This is contrary to most observations in fluorescence where the free-space quantum yield, Q₀, and lifetime, τ₀, usually change in unison as described by the well known equations: Q ₀=Γ/(Γ+k _(nr))  (3) τ₀=1/(Γ+k _(nr))  (4)

In addition, one major criterion for choosing fluorophores in current immunoassays has been a high quantum yield. This can lead to a high background from either unlabelled fluorophores or a high fluorescence background from non-specific assay absorption. However, metal-enhanced fluorescence is ideally suited in this regard, in that low quantum yield fluorophores are more favorable, the fluorescence enhancement factor in the presence of silver nanostructures given by 1/Q₀ where Q⁰ is the free-space quantum yield in the absence of metal. Subsequently MEF when applied to immunoassays, yields ultra bright assays, with a much higher Signal:Noise as compared to identical assays not employing the MEF phenomenon.

Preparation of Metal Islands

Metallic island particles are prepared in clean beakers by reduction of metal ions using various reducing agents. For example, sodium hydroxide is added to a rapidly stirred silver nitrate solution forming a brown precipitate. Ammonium hydroxide is added to re-dissolve the precipitate. The solution is cooled and dried quartz slides are added to the beaker, followed by glucose. After stirring for 2 minutes, the mixture is warmed to 30° C. After 10-15 minutes, the mixture turns yellow-green and becomes cloudy. A thin film of silver particles has formed on the slides as can be seen from their brown green color. The slides are rinsed with pure water prior to use.

Preparation of Silver Colloids

Colloids can be prepared as suspensions by citrate reduction metals. Preferred metals are silver and gold. Again, gold may be used because of the absorption of gold at shorter wavelengths. However, gold colloids may also be used with longer wavelength red and NIR fluorophores. The size of the colloids and their homogeneity can be determined by the extensive publications on the optical properties of metal particles available and the effects of interface chemistry on the optical property of colloids.

Silver island films can be formed by a chemical reduction of a silver salt on the quartz surface, which are relatively simple to fabricate. However, this approach does not provide a control of particle size, or distance of the fluorophores from the surface. Enhancements of 1000 fold have been with the realization that sample geometries have been heterogeneous and the enhancement factors spatially averaged.

Metal particles can be bound to a surface by placing functional chemical groups such as cyanide (CN), amine (NH₂) or thiol (SH), on a glass or polymer substrate. Metal colloids are known to spontaneously bind to such surfaces with high affinity.

Positioning of the biomolecule or metal particle at a desired distance can be achieved by using a film. The film may be a polymer film, a Langmuir-Blodgett film or an oxide film.

Langmuir-Blodgett Films

Metal-fluorophore distances may be achieved by using Langmuir-Blodgett films with fatty acid spacers. The fatty acids may be from natural sources, including concentrated cuts or fractionations, or synthetic alkyl carboxylic acids. Examples of the fatty acids include, but not limited to, caprylic (C₈), capric (C₁₀), lauric (C₁₂), myristic (C₁₄), palmitic (C₁₆), stearic (C₁₈), oleic (C₁₈), linoleic (C₁₈), linolenic (C₁₈), ricinoleic (C₁₈) arachidic (C₂₀), gadolic (C₂₀), behenic (C22) and erucic (C₂₂). The fatty acids with even numbered carbon chain lengths are given as illustrative though the odd numbered fatty acids can also be used.

Metal-fluorophore distances may be achieved by using polymer films. Examples of the polymer include, but not limited to, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Absorbance measurements and ellipsometry may be used to determine polymer film thickness. One type of polymer films is spin coated polymer film. The technology of spin coated polymer spacer films readily allows films to be coated onto a variety of surfaces, with varied thickness from >0.1 μm. The coating can be performed on a spin coater, which allows uniform surface thickness by varying polymer concentration (viscosity) and spin speed. For example, Model P6700 spin coater (Specialty Coating Systems Inc.), allows uniform surface thickness by varying polymer concentration (viscosity) and spin speed.

Metallic colloids (or various other non-spherical shapes/particles) may also be incorporated into organic polymers, covalently or non-covalently, to form polymeric matrices, wherein the distance from diffusing species affords an increase in radiative decay rate and thus, an increase in quantum yield. Such polymeric matrices are ideal for sensing/flowing sensing applications of low concentration species.

Polymers containing metal particles may have other applications, including but not limited to, size inclusion/exclusion sensing of a fluorescent or a non-fluorescent species, increased photostability of embedded fluorophores, single pore single molecule detection, and porous polymers which allow diffusing analytes or antibodies, resulting in a detectable and quantifiable signal change in the analyte or antibody or respective transduction element.

FIG. 1 illustrates the new assay for the detection of unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum. Briefly, the new assay, as shown in FIG. 1, provides for immobilizing noble metallic nanostructures on either glass or plastic supports. A thin polymeric layer is then coated and immobilized on both the metallized and nonmetallized portions of the glass/plastic supports. The polymeric film contains an optimized amount of HSA (Human Serum Albumin) to bind any unbound bilirubin. The molecular weight of the polymer has been chosen such that small molecules, like bilirubin, can readily diffuse into the polymer film and bind with HSA, but once bound can't diffuse out from the film due to the crosslinking density and therefore pore size of the polymer. The polymer film also prevents bilirubin bound HSA from diffusing into the polymer film. In essence, the polymer films acts as a membrane through which only free bilirubin diffuses. Free bilirubin is typically weakly fluorescent and for the most part considered to be non-fluorescent [74]. However, upon complexation with HSA becomes fluorescent, and due to the close proximity of the silver, is further fluorescently enhanced.

The albumin bound bilirubin on the surface of the polymer is washed away before measurements, providing for enhanced fluorescence intensities from the polymer immobilized free bilirubin fraction of the sample.

The silver surfaces required for MEF and the present assay can be obtained using silver metal island films (SiFs), sandwiched films or even spin coated silver islands or colloids. A quartz surface or plastic may be used as substrates for forming the metal islands thereon. If quartz is used, the quartz slides are soaked in 10 parts 98% H₂SO₄ and 1 part 30% H₂O₂ for at least 24 hrs. The SiFs are prepared in clean beakers by reduction of silver ions using various reducing agents [75]. Sodium hydroxide is added to a rapidly stirred silver nitrate solution forming a brown precipitate. Ammonium hydroxide is added to redissolve the precipitate. The solution is cooled and dried quartz slides are added to the beaker, followed by glucose. After stirring for 2 mins the mixture is warmed to 30° C. After 10-15 min the mixture turns yellow-green and becomes cloudy. A thin film of silver particles has formed on the slides as can be seen from their brown green color. The slides are rinsed in pure water prior to the experiment. Additional procedures for preparing silver and gold particles are also available [76-80], but primarily silver is used because of the longer surface plasmon absorption of gold, which accounts for its familiar color. It is also possible to silanize (and uniformly amino coat) the slides by placing them in a 2% solution (v/v) of 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APS) in dry methanol for 2 hrs, rinsed and then air-dried. The silanized substrates should be used within one hour or stored under a dry nitrogen atmosphere. Silver nanostructures readily bind to surface amino groups with high affinity [81,82], and therefore this process can be used to produce films, where the silver is tightly surface bound.

While SiFs have been successfully used for MEF studies [2,6,7,9,25], other metallic particles and surfaces may be employed, if required, e.g. colloids can be prepared as suspensions by citrate reduction of silver or gold, where the size of the colloids and their homogeneity can be judged quite simply by the extensive publications on the optical properties of metal particles available [83,84], and the effects of interface chemistry on the optical property of colloids [85]. It is also possible to prepare bimetallic metal nanoparticles [86] or hollow sphere colloids [87]. In addition, the present inventor has recently published two new procedures for the seed-mediated growth and deposition of silver nanorods [17] and nanotriangles [16] on substrates, and these may be employed, if required. Pre-formed metal particles or colloids can also be bound to glass surfaces by placing functional groups such as cyanide (CN), amine (NH₂), or thiol (SH) on a glass or polymer substrate. In this regard, the present inventor has recently shown that MEF can occur from plastic substrates, when inert polymers are firstly functionalized with amino groups [29]. Silver and gold colloids spontaneously bind to such surfaces with high affinity [81,82]. Procedures for coating particles with silica have also been developed and will be used if required [89,90].

In a typical preparation, glass microscope slides, as shown in FIG. 6, were cleaned with “piranha solution” (3:7 30% hydrogen peroxide/concentrated sulfuric acid) for at least 2 hours. Then, the glass substrates were rinsed extensively with deionized water and dried in a stream of dry nitrogen prior to use. The cleaned slides were silanized by immersing them in a solution of 3-((trichlorosiyl)propyl) metacrylate (TPM) in heptane and carbon tetrachloride (4:1, v/v) Then, the TPM-coated glass slides were rinsed in ethanol and then water. Finally, the TPM-coated slides were dried in a stream of nitrogen gas. The polymer precursor solution was prepared by combining 50 mg of PEG-DA (Polyethylene Glycol diacrylate), 200 μL of deionized water, and 6 μL photoinitiator Darocur 1173 (From Ciba Special Chemicals, NY) and vortexing for 5 mins. A few drops of the HSA/Polymer precursor solution was placed on TPM-coated glass slides. Free radical polymerization of the acrylate end groups was initiated by exposure to a 100 W long wave UV spot lamp (UVP Inc.; Upland, Calif.) for 30 min. The thickness of the polymer can be controlled by spin coating before curing [91], and also monitored by a variety of other techniques [91]. In this regard, the CFS is equipped with a Speciality Coating Systems Inc., Model P6700 spin coater, which allows uniform surface thickness by varying polymer concentration (viscosity) and spin speed. This allows polymer film thicknesses down to several nm to be achieved [91, 92]. In this regard, film thicknesses are preferably less than 100 nm to optimize MEF, noting that the surface is non continuous and features “valleys and mountains” in its surface topography. The film thickness and HSA ratio is optimize to allow the polymer films to freely diffusing bilirubin, where the film thickness and HSA extent of loading is simply optimized by considering the maximum observable fluorescence intensity at ≈520 nm, the emission maxima for bilirubin. The optimum concentration of HSA is loaded into the polymer precursor solution before spin coating and UV curing. This concentration is optimized with regard to the maximum fluorescence observed by exposure to free solution bilirubin after the polymer is cured. Films are optimized with regard to sensor response times and maximum fluorescence signal. After polymerization, the PEG layer is washed in PBS for at least 2 hours. This step serves to both hydrate the matrix and to remove any unbound surface HSA.

It has been found that the PEG-DA polymer is suitable for the MEF assay. However, other polymers may be used, for example, polymers of HEMA (hydroxy ethyl methacrylate) [93-97], used in the development of aqueous anion sensors [96] and ethyl cellulose [98], used in the construction of dissolved CO₂ sensors [98], would be considered. In addition, plasticized PVC is simple to prepare, can be made moderately hydrophilic [99] and can be coated on a variety of surfaces [100-103].

Free bilirubin calibration plots can be determined for the optimum polymer formulation, which includes the optimized polymer thickness, extent of HSA loading and w/v PEG-DA in the final formulation. These parameters directly affect the free bilirubin diffusion rates into the polymer film (sensor response time) as well as both the enhanced and total fluorescence signal observed. For example, a polymer film 10 μM thick would not be appropriate for a MEF assay, as the MEF phenomenon has been found to occur in a range from 50 to 300 nm from the glass substrate and <10 nm from the peak (top) of the SiFs. Hence, polymer films ranging from about 50 nm to about 300 nm, are deemed appropriate depending on the level of inclusion of HSA in the firm, and preferably, the film is approximately 100 nm thick. 50 μl of buffered free bilirubin solution is pipetted into small micro sample chambers as shown in FIG. 7, which are used to trap small volumes on the assay surface. The emission intensity maxima for bilirubin upon 470 nm laser line excitation, and observed through a Semrock 488 razor edge filter, is recorded. The calibration plots is constructed, using identical assay formulations, starting at the clinically significant concentration 2 μg/dl and decreased through series dilutions (from the master stock solution) until the S/N ratio drops below 3. This value is deemed the highest sensitivity, lowest free bilirubin concentration, the assay can measure. Each concentration is measured four (4) times and the mean value determined and plotted. Preferably, the calibration plot contains no fewer than 25 concentration data points, each the mean of four (4) 4 separate measurements.

Fluorophore or analyte photostability is a primary concern in many applications of fluorescence, particularly platform type assays and single molecule studies [61,107]. The maximum number of photons that are emitted by a fluorophore each second is roughly limited by the lifetime of its excited state. If the silver assay surface decreases the lifetime of bilirubin due its close proximity as suggested by equations 3 and 4, then one can obtain more photons per second per molecule, by appropriately increasing the incident intensity. On the other hand, the MEF effect enhances the intensity while simultaneously shortening the lifetime, so it may in fact be possible to decrease the excitation intensity yet still see a significant increase in the emission intensity and therefore photostability of bound bilirubin. Thus, laser irradiances can be lowered, significantly reducing the likelihood of any bilirubin photochemistries [108,109]. Radiation excitation frequencies are used that do not cause bilirubin photochemical reactions and frequencies such as 516 or 532 nm may be used, by using notch or razor edge filters for emission.

Bilirubin samples were prepared by using a solid, powdered form of bilirubin that can be purchased with high purity from Sigma. Both solid and solutions of bilirubin preferably are kept cold and away from direct light when not in use, due to bilirubin's well-known photochemistries [111]. A stock solution was first prepared by dissolving 1 mg of bilirubin into 10 μl of 1N sodium hydroxide and then 25 μl of 0.1M EDTA to dissolve the bilirubin into a slurry. 3 ml of buffer was then added to equilibrate the pH to ≈7. The concentration of the stock solution was approximately about 500 μM, and from this, dilutions can be made in order to test a range of free bilirubin concentrations. Low concentrations are especially important, because free bilirubin concentration in infants is between 0.05 to 2.5 μg/dl. Both the stock solution and samples to be measured should be kept at 5° C. and wrapped in aluminum foil until use. Samples to be tested, should be prepared on the day of use. The stock bilirubin solution lasts for about a week, one readily observing color change as a function of bilirubin instability [111].

50 μl of buffered free bilirubin was pipetted into a small plastic cover which covers one area of the polymer-coated silvered surface. The small micro-sample chambers, readily available from Invitrogen, as shown in FIG. 7, come in a range of volume sizes from 10's of μl's up to several ml. The sample chambers simply stick to surfaces, retaining and trapping a known surface volume. Typically, a 500 μl blood sample provides ≈250 μl of serum, 50 μl to be used for the new MEF assay.

In addition to using standard 470 nm front face excitation and off-axis collection of the enhanced intrinsic bilirubin fluorescence, FIG. 4, the present invention contemplates using a TIRF (Total-Internal Reflection Fluorescence) excitation geometry, but with the same collection angle/geometry for fluorescence. The fluorescence will be collected through a 488 nm Semrock Razor edge filter, the emission spectra collected on a Ocean Optics HR4000 fiber-optic spectrometer. Using a TIRF geometry, as shown in FIG. 4, one produces a metal-amplified evanescent wave above the assay, far greater than is observed than without the silver [113, 114], which penetrates several hundred nanometers away from the silver particles [113]. Given the fact that the free bilirubin is in close proximity to the silver particles in the film, then this mode of excitation provides for a good way of suppressing unwanted background fluorescence, as distal material from the silver is not excited and therefore does not fluoresce.

While the surface of the polymer film has shown very little fouling by HSA, (tested using fluorescein labeled HSA from Invitrogen), this approach is still likely to increase the S/N ratio of our system. It is for this reason that TIRF geometries are widely used in many assays today [115,116].

FIG. 5 shows the presence of diffused bilirubin into photocured PEG-DA (Polyethylene Diacrylate) polymer after incubation, evident by the yellow color. In this FIG. 5, 50 μl of 0.2 μg/dl laboratory free bilirubin (Sigma) in PBS buffer was incubated onto the surface of a metallized slide according to the present invention. After a 10 minute incubation period, the assay was washed with buffer for 2 mins to remove any unbound material. From the photograph shown in FIG. 5, the presence of the bilirubin can be clearly seen, confirming the plausibility of the proposed assay. In addition, this free bilirubin concentration is towards the lower end of the clinically important concentration range scale to be assayed. While no silver is present on these substrates, silver Island films only occupy a ≈40% mass surface coverage and therefore the polymer adheres to the 60% non silvered glass using the same chemistries.

In an another embodiment, the present invention relates to a new sensing platform technology based on Metal-Enhanced Fluorescence (MEF), where the detected fluorescence emission is significantly amplified for detection of a nucleotide sequence. The nucleotide sequence communicatively connect to the metallic material can be quantified compared to the undetectable emission on non metallized surface. In this regard, the detection of RNA is accomplished by annealing a target RNA, tagged with a fluorophore, to an oligonucleotide anchor probe in a single step on a solid surface, where the, fluorescence signal is intrinsically enhanced by silver nanoparticles as shown in MEF based RNA sensing platform systems of FIGS. 8 and 11.

“Nucleotide,” as used herein refers to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic (RNA), RNA can be unspliced or spliced mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, or antisense RNAi. DNA can be complementary DNA (cDNA), genomic DNA, or an antisense.

The nucleotides used as hybridization probes in the present inventor are typically designed to be specific for the desired sequence in order to decrease the probability of hybridizing to unrelated sequences. Such probes can be modified so as to be detectable using radionuclides, luminescent moieties, and so forth. Hybridization conditions also can be modified in order to achieve the desired specificity. For example, a moderately stringent hybridization condition may include: 2×SSC/0.1% SDS at about 37° C. or 42° C. (hybridization conditions); 0.5×SSC/0.1% SDS at about room temperature (low stringency wash); 0.5×SSC/0.1% SDS at about 42° C. (moderate stringency wash). An example of moderately-high stringency hybridization conditions is as follows: 0.1×SSC/0.1% SDS at about 52° C. (moderately-high stringency wash). An example of high stringency hybridization conditions is as follows: 0.1×SSC/0.1% SDS at about 65° C. (high stringency wash).

The nucleotides sequences of the present invention can be obtained using standard techniques known in the art (e.g., molecular cloning, chemical synthesis) and the purity can be determined by polyacrylamide or agarose gel electrophoresis, sequencing analysis, and the like. Polynucleotides also can be isolated using hybridization or computer-based techniques that are well known in the art. Such techniques include, but are not limited to: (1) hybridization of genomic DNA or cDNA libraries with probes to detect homologous nucleotide sequences; (2) antibody screening of polypeptides expressed by DNA sequences (e.g., using an expression library); (3) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of genomic DNA or cDNA using primers capable of annealing to a nucleic acid sequence of interest; (4) computer searches of sequence databases for related sequences; and (5) differential screening of a subtracted nucleic acid library.

Formation of Silver Island Films (SiFs) on APS-Coated Glass Substrates

Silver nitrate (99.9%), sodium hydroxide (99.996%), ammonium hydroxide (30%), trisodium citrate, D-glucose and premium quality APS-coated glass slides (75×25 mm) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. The sources for enzymes, RNA and DNA are described below. In a typical SiFs preparation a solution of silver nitrate (0.5 g in 60 ml of deionized water) in a clean 100-ml glass beaker, equipped with a Teflon-coated stir bar, is prepared and placed on a Corning stirring/hot plate. While stirring at the quickest speed, 200 μL of freshly prepared 5% (w/v) sodium hydroxide solution is added. This results in the formation of dark brown precipitates of silver particles. Approximately 2 ml of ammonium hydroxide is then added, drop by drop, to re-dissolve the precipitates. The clear solution is cooled to 5° C. by placing the beaker in an ice bath, followed by soaking the APS-coated glass slides in the solution. While keeping the slides at 5° C., a fresh solution of D-glucose (0.72 g in 15 ml of water) is added. Subsequently, the temperature of the mixture is then warmed to 30° C. As the color of the mixture turns from yellow-green to yellow-brown, and the color of the slides become green, the slides are removed from the mixture, washed with water, and sonicated for a few seconds at room temperature. SiFs-deposited slides were then rinsed with deionized water several times and dried under a stream of nitrogen gas.

Preparation of the β-Globin mRNA Substrate

The complete protein coding sequence of rabbit β-globin mRNA was amplified from plasmid pC7βG²³ by polymerase chain reaction using Pfu DNA polymerase (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) from primers 5′-GCAGTCTAGAATGGTGCATCTGTCCAG-3′ and 5′-GCACAAGCTTCAGTGGTATTTGTGAGCCAGG-3′ (Integrated DNA Technologies, Coralville, Iowa). Underlined bases indicate the XbaI and HindIII restriction sites incorporated into the 5′- and 3′-termini of the PCR product. This DNA fragment was then inserted into the XbaI+HindIII restriction sites of pGEM7Zf(+) (Promega, Madison, Wis.) using standard subcloning techniques to generate plasmid pG7(+)βG-CDS. The fidelity of the β-globin cDNA insert was verified by restriction digests and automated DNA sequencing.

A 484-nt RNA substrate containing the β-globin coding sequence (See FIG. 12) was prepared by in vitro transcription using T7 RNA polymerase (Ambion, Austin, Tex.) from a HindIII-linearized pG7(+)βG-CDS DNA template. Following digestion of template DNA with RQ1-DNase (Promega), templates were purified by duplicate extractions with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1). Unincorporated nucleotides were removed from the preparation by spin column chromatography through RNase-free G-50 Quick Spin columns (Roche, Indianapolis, Ind.). The integrity of the β-globin RNA substrate was evaluated by electrophoresis through formaldehyde-agarose gels stained with ethidium bromide. Fluorescence intensity of ethidium bromide-stained RNA was measured using the EDAS 290 gel documentation system (Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.), with synthesis yield calculated by comparison to co-fractionated RNA size markers (InVitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.).

MEF-Based RNA Sensing Assays

The following RNA capture assay [143] was used to detect specific RNA substrates on SiFs-coated glass slides, as shown in FIG. 11. First, β-globin mRNA or yeast tRNA substrates (10 ng) were incubated with an antisense primer 5′-GTGAGCCAGGGCATT-TAMRA-3′ (fluorescent probe; 10 pmol) in a total volume of 100 μl hybridization buffer [10 mM HEPES.KOH [pH 7.4] containing 100 mM KCl, 2 mM dithiolthreitol, and 1 mM MgCl₂] at 70° C. for 5 minutes, then the RNA/DNA construct was slowly cooled to 37° C. over 20-30 minutes. The anchor probe (5′-thiol-CACCTTCTGATAGGC-3′, 10 pmol) was attached to the SiFs by an overnight incubation at 4° C. in a humidified chamber. Excess thiol-conjugated oligo was removed by washing the surface with the hybridization buffer several times. The TAMRA-linked oligo annealed to RNA substrates were annealed to the thiol-linked anchor oligo on the surface of the SiFs at 37° C. for 30 minutes in a humidified chamber. Non-binding RNA substrates were removed as described above prior to fluorescence measurements. This procedure brings the fluorophore to a distance, approximately 10 nm, from the surface of the SiFs where the fluorescence emission is expected to increase by MEF as described previously [131,132].

Fluorescence measurements on SiFs were performed by placing the SiFs on a stationary stage equipped with the fiber-optics mount on a 15-cm-long arm (normal to sample). The output of the fiber was connected to an Ocean Optics HD2000 spectrofluorometer for the emission spectra. The excitation light was provided by a 532 nm laser at an angle of 45 degrees. The emission spectra were observed through a 532-nm-notch filter (Samrock).

The deposition of Silver Island films onto glass slides was performed as described previously [136]. In a typical SiF preparation, a solution of sodium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide are added to a continuously stirred solution of silver nitrate at room temperature. Subsequently, the mixture is cooled down in an ice bath, Silane-Prep™ glass slides (Sigma) are inserted and a solution of D-glucose is added. As the temperature is increased, the color of the mixture turns yellow-brown and the SiFs-deposited slides are removed from the mixture, washed with water, and sonicated for a few seconds at room temperature. SiFs-deposited glass slides were stored in deionized water until they were used. Fluorescence emission spectra of TAMRA-labeled oligo with RNA substrate hybridized to the thiolated-oligo anchor probe on SiFs is shown in FIG. 9. The emission intensity peak of TAMRA-labeled oligo that was annealed to RNA substrates ranging from 25 fmoles to 500 fmoles is clearly observed at 585 nm, and increased linearly as the amount of RNA substrate is increased, as shown in FIG. 9. The fluorescence emission spectra of TAMRA shown in FIG. 9 (especially for the RNA substrates of 250 fmoles or higher) appear broader than the spectrum of TAMRA-labeled oligo anchor probe measured from a solution on plain glass, as shown in FIG. 13, due to the background scattering from the SiFs-coated glass slide.

The control experiments revealed that when the RNA sequence was changed (that is, control tRNA with random sequence is used in the RNA capture assay) the fluorescence emission from TAMRA-labeled oligo was not observed, as shown in FIG. 14, since the control tRNA lacked the specific sequence that is required for the annealing of TAMRA-labeled RNA. In addition, when either of the other components of the RNA capture assay, thiolated-oligo or TAMRA-labeled oligo is omitted, almost no fluorescence emission was observed. Thus, the RNA capture assay is highly specific and the contribution of the non-specific interactions to the detected signal is minimal.

The lower detection limit (LDL) of the RNA capture assay described here was 25 fmoles of RNA (S/N>20) and made possible by the amplification of fluorescence emission intensity based on our previously described phenomenon metal-enhanced fluorescence [131,132]. The amplification of fluorescence emission intensity is a property of the silver nanoparticles deposited on the glass slides and thought to occur due to partial non-radiative energy transfer between the excited state of the fluorophore and the surface plasmons of the silver nanoparticles, as well as due to the spatially localized excitation of fluorophores created by the nanoparticles within close proximity [137].

Although the LDL of the MEF-based RNA capture assay is 100-200-fold less sensitive than the current RNA capture assays [129,140], the MEF-based RNA sensing method offers a considerably simpler, cheaper and quicker alternative to RT-PCR, since it does not require the amplification of the RNA target and can be performed relatively quickly. Given that the S/N>3-4 for fluorescence-based assays is considered acceptable, [133] the actual lower detection limit of the MEF-based RNA capture assay is approximately 5 fmoles.

In a comparison experiment, RNA was detected in the absence of SiFs on glass (FIG. 15 on glass, Top-Left) and in the presence of SiFs using avidin-biotin interactions. In this regard, firstly, the RNA is annealed to a TAMRA-labeled oligo and then the RNA/TAMRA-labeled oligo is annealed to a biotinylated Oligo. Finally, the resultant RNA/Oligo construct is brought the surface due to the interaction of avidin and biotin. FIG. 16 shows fluorescence emission spectra (intensity: arbitrary units) of TAMRA-linked Oligo annealed to the RNA substrate (500 fmoles) that was hybridized with the biotinylated Oligo anchor probe that was brought to the glass surface via avidin-biotin interactions. The emission intensity peak of TAMRA-labeled oligo that was annealed to RNA substrates (Target and non-specific RNA: 500 fmoles) is observed at 585 nm but are similar (20 AU). That is, the RNA assay on glass substrate in the absence of SiFs is not sensitive enough to distinguish between the actual assay and the non-specific interactions. In contrast, FIG. 17 shows fluorescence emission spectra (intensity: arbitrary units) of TAMRA-linked Oligo annealed to the RNA substrate (500 fmoles) that was hybridized with the biotinylated Oligo anchor probe that was brought to the SiFs-coated surface via avidin-biotin interactions. The emission intensity peak of TAMRA-labeled oligo that was annealed to RNA substrates (Target and non-specific RNA: 500 fmoles) is observed at 585 nm and significantly larger than the background. Although, the sensitivity of the RNA assay using SiFs (and avidin-biotin interactions) is improved compared to the assay on the glass surface, the sensitivity is much less when compared to the RNA assay on SiFs with thiolated-oligo is used. This is due to the fact that the fluorophore is located approximately 10 nm away from the surface of the silver when avidin-biotin system is used (the thicknesses of avidin and biotinylated BSA are 4 nm) and approximately 4 nm when thiolated oligo is used. In all the previously published MEF papers [131, 132,136, 137] the maximum enhancement of fluorescence by silver was observed when the fluorophore was located within 8 nm of the surface and the enhancement is decreased for the distances larger than 8 nm. Thus, the RNA assay using the thiolated-oligo on SiFs is more sensitive than the assays using avidin-biotin interactions on glass and SiFs.

The rapidity of the MEF-based RNA capture assays could be increased further with the help of low-power microwaves, as shown previously for the MEF-based protein and antibody assays that were completed within 20 seconds, i.e., microwave-accelerated metal-enhanced fluorescence (MAMEF) [136,138]. Similar to RT-PCR, the MEF-based RNA capture assays could potentially be multiplexed by simply using SiFs-coated high throughput screening (HTS) wells [139]. Ultimately, ultra-rapid MEF-based multiplexed RNA capture assays comparable to RT-PCR could be achieved by combining MAMEF technology with the use of SiFs-coated HTS wells once the sensitivity of the MEF-based method is improved. In this regard, MEF-based enhancements in excess 3000-fold using fractal silver surfaces was recently reported[132].

REFERENCES

The contents of the following references are hereby incorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

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1. A detection system for capturing unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum, the detection system comprising: metallic material deposited on a substrate, wherein the metallic material comprises metallic islands or colloids of a noble metal; and a polymeric film positioned on the metallic material, wherein the thickness of the polymeric film is from about 40 nm to about 300 nm, wherein the polymeric film is impregnated with HSA and the polymeric film is fabricated from a polymer wherein the unbound bilirubin can diffuse into the polymer film and bind with the HSA to form bilirubin bound HSA, and wherein the bilirubin bound HSA is positioned from about 4 nm to 20 nm from the metallic material to enhance fluorescence.
 2. The detection system according to claim 1, wherein the metallic material comprises silver, gold, platinum, copper or a combination thereof.
 3. The detection system according to claim 1, wherein the substrate is glass or a polymeric material.
 4. The detection system according to claim 1, wherein the unbound bilirubin is contained in whole blood or serum.
 5. A detection system for determining free unbound bilirubin, the system comprising: a metallic material applied to at least a portion of a substrate surface, wherein the metallic material comprises metallic islands, colloids or nanostructures of any geometric shape of a noble metal; a polymeric layer applied to the metallic material and any exposed substrate surface to form a detection substrate, wherein the thickness of the polymeric layer is from about 40 nm to about 300 nm, wherein the polymeric layer is impregnated with HSA and is fabricated from a polymer wherein the free unbound bilirubin can diffuse into the polymer film and bind with the HSA to form bilirubin bound HSA and wherein the bilirubin bound HSA is positioned from about 4 nm to 20 nm from the metallic material; a source of electromagnetic energy for applying energy to the detection system; and a detector for measuring fluorescence emission of the bilirubin bound HSA in the polymeric material to enhance fluorescence.
 6. The detection system according to claim 5, wherein the metallic material comprises a noble metal.
 7. The detection system according to claim 6, wherein the noble metal comprises silver, gold, platinum, copper, and combination thereof.
 8. The detection system according to claim 5, wherein the substrate positioned beneath the metallic material comprises glass, a polymeric material or a combination thereof.
 9. The detection system according to claim 5, wherein the HSA impregnated and/or coated polymeric material further comprises a tag that emits a radiative signal when excited by electromagnetic energy.
 10. A method for detecting unbound bilirubin in neonatal serum, the method comprising: contacting a detection substrate with neonatal serum, wherein the detection substrate comprises: metallic material applied to at least a portion of a substrate surface, wherein the metallic material comprises metallic islands, colloids or nanostructures of any geometric shape of a noble metal; and a polymeric layer applied to the metallic material, wherein the thickness of the polymeric layer is from about 40 nm to about 300 nm, wherein the polymeric layer is impregnated with HSA and is fabricated from a polymer wherein the unbound bilirubin can diffuse into the polymer film and bind with the HSA to form bilirubin bound HSA and wherein the bilirubin bound HSA is positioned from about 4 nm to 20 nm from the metallic material; applying a source of electromagnetic energy to the detection substrate; and detecting fluorescence emission of the bilirubin bound HSA in the polymeric material.
 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the metallic material comprises a noble metal.
 12. The method according to claim 11, wherein the noble metal comprises silver, gold, platinum, copper, and combination thereof.
 13. The method according to claim 10, wherein the substrate positioned beneath the metallic material comprises glass, a polymeric material or a combination thereof.
 14. A kit for use in determining free unbound bilirubin in a test sample of neonatal serum, the kit comprising a metallic material applied to at least a portion of a substrate surface, wherein the metallic material comprises metallic islands, colloids or nanostructures of any geometric shape of a noble metal, wherein the substrate surface is positioned within a container; and a polymeric layer applied to the metallic material surface to form a detection substrate, wherein the thickness of the polymeric layer is from about 40 nm to about 300 nm, wherein the polymeric layer is impregnated with HSA and is fabricated from a polymer wherein the free unbound bilirubin can diffuse into the polymer film and bind with the HSA to form bilirubin bound HSA and wherein the bilirubin bound HSA is positioned from about 4 nm to 20 nm from the metallic material to enhance fluorescence. 